Sultan

Arabic: sultân

Title used by monarchs in Muslim countries.

The title was one of indirect religious meaning, as the sultan was supposed to have both moral and spiritual authority as defined by the Koran. Yet, the sultan was no religious leader — he was more a secular leader who ruled in accordance with Islam.
The first to carry the title was the Turkmen chief Mahmud of Gazna (ruled 998- 1030). Later both the Seljuqs, Mamlukes and Ottomans called their leaders sultans.
The religious element of the title was well illustrated by the fact that it was the shadow caliph in Cairo that bestowed the title "sultan" on the fourth leader of the Ottomans (the earlier leaders had been beys).

The Sultan was the leader and absolute monarch of the Ottoman Empire. He
also assumed the position of the Caliph of Islam. In the earlier parts of
the empire, the position of Sultan passed from father to eldest son. Later,
however, the position was handed to the most worthy successor, most often the
eldest son, but not always. After gaining the position of Sultan, all of his
brothers and his sons were executed in order to ensure that there would be
no struggle over the throne. Later in the empire, the brothers and their
sons were imprisoned rather than executed.

The main duty of the Ottoman Sultan was to ensure justice to all the people within the empire. In order to ensure this, there were many tactics. Institutions in the central government were set up, forming the first bureaucracy. Another duty of the Sultan was to watch over the main officials to make sure none were corrupt or unjust. He went through local governments in disguise to make sure all officers and justices were fair. He also had a complex system of spies who would report to the bureaucracy in order to constantly regulate the empire. If any officials were found to be corrupt or abusing their power, they were subject to Siyasya, a set of severe punishments imposed by the Sultan. Crimes such as illegal taxation, forced labor of peasants, staying in homes with out consent, lodging troops with out permission or demanding peasants to provide food for them or their soldiers was usualy ground for the death penalty.

A public declaration of laws and taxes prevented fraudulent taxes and arbitrary laws. All members of the Ottoman Empire were able to approach the Imperial Council with complaints against government officials. These complaints were taken in all seriousness by the Council. Public opinion was regarded as the only true foundation of the state authority. Without the support of the public, the Sultan as well as all other officials would loose authority, forming a corrupt empire, something which was not desired. In order to assure justice to the public, most wars were planned years ahead of time. Supplies were laid out along the route so that the armies could feed themselves without impeding on the citizens. The Sultans position as Caliph was also shown through military conquests, most of which were done in order to guarantee safe passage of Muslims to Mecca, or to get rid of heterodox or heretical Islamic practices and beliefs.

The political structure of the Ottoman Empire was focused on ensuring justice for all of its members. Although it may seem that an absolute monarch is power-hungry, it is shown clearly that the Sultan in the Ottoman Empire worked completely toward creating justice.(Source:Hines, Richard. "The Ottomans: Origins.")

At later stages, even smaller rulers took the name "sultan", as was the case for the earlier leaders of today's royal family of Morocco.

Today, only the leader of Oman uses the title "sultan".